Abiotic and biotic factors influencing mangrove biodiversity and ecosystem functioning

Mangrove ecosystems are keystone coastal habitats that support high levels of biodiversity and provide essential ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, shoreline stabilization, nutrient cycling, and fisheries support. Despite their ecological resilience, mangroves are increasingly threatened by the combined effects of abiotic and biotic stressors. Coastal development, pollution, hydrological alteration, sea-level rise, and climate extremes interact with biological pressures such as insect herbivory, invasive species, and pathogenic microorganisms, leading to habitat degradation and loss of ecosystem functionality. This review synthesizes current global evidence on the drivers of mangrove biodiversity decline, emphasizing the mechanistic interactions between abiotic and biotic factors. It uniquely integrates ecological, physiological, and conservation perspectives to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding mangrove vulnerability and resilience. We further highlight evidence-based conservation and restoration strategies required to sustain mangrove ecosystem services under accelerating environmental change. This review provides an integrated framework linking environmental stressors with ecological responses, offering insights to support effective conservation and sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems.